History of the concept of creativity

History of the concept of creativity History of the concept of creativity In spite of its current popularity, the concept of creativity, i.e. its name, is a recent notion that, nevertheless, went through a number of development stages and metamorphoses caused by the changes in the way the concept of creativity was perceived by societies at various stages of development. The process is not finished yet. Sometime in the future the general concept of creativity will hopefully be converted into a specialized concept, i. e. its regularities will be enumerated while its particularities linking it currently to a culture or a subculture will be eliminated. In the following text, the evolution of the concept of creativity throughout history is reviewed briefly, with the focus on important milestones and personalities. The milestones are arranged in a temporal sequence, whereas outstanding personalities are quoted where necessary, rather than presented in a strict temporal sequence. It is intuitively easy to accept the thesis that creative acts have been around as long as the homo sapiens, the humanoids and, indeed, living organisms. The concept of creativity appeared much later, and came forth very gradually. On the long way to establishing it, many intermediate new terms were generated, some of which have been used for centuries, in exceptional cases until our time. They help us understand more easily what creativity is and how it interacts with other operations in the intellectual sphere. Theoretical views of creativity follow the development of human culture and thought. Therefore, the concept of creativity is a component of the history of the human thought to the same extent as any other intellectual manifestation (Briffault, 1928). Much of the historical developments as accounted for in the following review are based on Tatarkiewiczs book (1980), Dictionnaire philosophique, and the following references: Verma (1969), Lindberg (1976), Abdus Salam (1984), Agar (2001), Ahmad (2002), Steffens (2006), Covington (2007), Roshdi (2007), and Medieval Classic civilization; An Encyclopaedia. Prehistoric times Remarkable and very advanced objects testifying to human creative genius are known from the art history. They originate from many parts of the world and from many different cultures and epochs. Perhaps the foremost examples of the earliest manifestations of creativity are various objects produced by the Australian Aborigines. The Aborigines are presumed to have moved to Australia from India some 50 000 years ago. Their most puzzling creative product is the boomerang for them hunting tool, for us an enigmatic object of scientific studies. Other important manifestation of human creative act and thought originates from Egypt and Mexico. These countries distinguish themselves not only by very advanced ability to produce objects, but also by the scientific (most often astronomic) knowledge embedded in these products. The pyramids of Egypt and those of Mexico, Guatemala, or Belize, the Mayan calendar, and the way of using mathematics in Egypt and in Mexico, are absolutely amazing even today. The Mayan astronomers had developed a spatial geometry parting from astronomy. The mathematics they used is still more accurate than the computational algorithms that make the flow of data in modern information networks possible (Ferrera-Balanquet, 2009). Another cultural area of great importance extends in Asia, particularly in the area comprising the present day Iraq, Iran, India, Sri Lanka and Cambodia. Buildings, materials and various concepts of physics embedded in the buildings testify to the high level of knowledge these peoples possessed thousands of years ago. In China and Japan, too, creativity enhanced knowledge in a manner that after thousands of years is still admired. India stands, as usual, apart in that it knew creativity as â€Å"insight† since times immemorial. For instance, in the extinct Pali language the word vipassanÄ  consists of the Sanskrit prefix â€Å"vi-â€Å" and the verbal root à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡paņº. It is often translated as †insight† or â€Å"clear-seeing,† One should not be misled by the â€Å"in-â€Å" prefix in â€Å"insight†.. â€Å"Vi† in ancient Aryan languages is equivalent to the Latin â€Å"dis-†. It is reasonable to conclude that in the word vipassanÄ  the prefix â€Å"vi-† generates the meaning â€Å"to see apart†, or discern. Alternatively, the â€Å"vi† can function as an intensifier. In that case vipassanÄ  may mean â€Å"seeing deeply†. A pali synonym for â€Å"VipassanÄ Ã¢â‚¬  is paccakkha, menaing â€Å"before the eyes,† which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by â€Å"vipassanÄ Ã¢â‚¬  is that of direct perception and experience, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument. It has also been adopted as the name of a kind of Buddhist meditation. Ancient Greece The people of Ancient Greece had no terms corresponding to â€Å"creativity† or â€Å"creator†. Yet, the poet was considered to be one who creates. Whatever was â€Å"creative† in the present sense of the word, was called art. The concept of art (in Greek  Ã…  Ã‚ Ã‹Å" Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °, from which technique and technology evolved), implied subjection to rules. Poetry (from  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ã…  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¼ to make) was an exception, although it was limited only to  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™Ã…  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã‹â€  (poetry) and to the  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ã…  Ã‚ Ã… ¡Ã‚ Ã‹â€  (poet, or maker) who made it, rather than to art in general. The reason was that art was considered an imitation of what already exists, â€Å"the making of things, according to rules†, hence subjection to laws and rules. In painting, music, or literature, there was no freedom. They were governed by what was known as ÃŽÂ ½ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹ (the laws). This conservative attitude and need for subjection prevailed in the works of Plato who claimed, mainly in Timaeus, Dialogue of Ion, and in The Republic, that a good work is contingent on observing an eternal model as suggested by Nature, and never deviate from that model. The eternal models were within reach, in the surrounding world, of which artists were the imitators. They thus had to abide by certain rules. In the visual arts, freedom was curtailed by the proportions that Polyclitus had established for the human frame. He called them â€Å"the canon† (meaning, measure). Likewise, in music, no freedom was necessary because melodies for ceremonies and entertainme nt were known. They were prescribed as nomoi. Making of things according to rules, or à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ·, was not considered to contain any creativity at all. In fact, if they had contained creativity, the state of affairs would be considered bad by the Greek standards of that time: Something similar to the negative perception of creative accounting nowadays [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 244]. Man ought to discover the laws of Nature and abide by them. Seeking freedom of action unnecessarily distracts him from seeking the optimum way. In Ancient Greece the artist was not an inventor, he was a discoverer [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245]. It means that he had to study the laws of Nature, discover and see how related entities interact, and use them as a model. This world-view had its own justification. Nature is both perfect and subject to laws. The artists ambition must be to discover these laws and submit to them, rather than seek the distracting freedom from these laws, a freedom that would deflect him from attaining the optimal state. Poetry stood outside these limitations. The poet invented a whole new world and gave it life. The poet differed from the artist, the imitator, in that laws did not bind him. In spite of the absence of the term for creativity, creation, or the creator, the poet, and only the poet, was understood to be a creator.According to the Greek view, the poet was an inventor, i. e. he put together unrelated entities and let them interact in an arbitrary manner. This is what made poetry the only exception from the rules applying to art. In terms of truthfulness of this world-view, Aristotle, who established the term truth, was not sure whether poetry required adherence to truth, i. e. whether it imitated Nature. He thought that poetry was in the realm that was neither true nor false [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245-6]. The concepts of imagination and inspiration, too, were restricted to poetry only. Poets were seen differently and they saw things differently. But not everybody was reconciled with this restriction. An example can be found in the Odyssey, where a question is posed why the singer should be forbidden to entertain his listeners with singing as he himself will. Yet, even in this rigid environment of dogmas, some progress took place. Thus, in the 3rd century, Porphyry of Tyros graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. In the 4thcentury of the Christian era, Pappus of Alexandria searched for a science of invention. He named his techniques â€Å"heuristics†. Antique Rome The Roman civilization developed from the Greek civilization. It was younger, thus more progressive and more exploratory than was the civilization of Greece. Therefore, things were seen in a different light in Rome, and the Greek concepts were viewed as partially outdated. To begin with, the vocabulary was enriched with new concepts, which shook up the foundations of the Greek thought. This effort happened to follow two counter-directions. on the one hand, Cicero wrote that art embraces those things â€Å"which are known† (â€Å"quae sciuntur†) [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245]. Horace, on the other hand, elevated painters to the level of poets in giving them the privilege of daring whatever they pleased (â€Å"quod libet audendi†), instead of following the â€Å"eternal model†. Moreover, in the declining period of antiquity, Lucius Flavius Philostratus discovered a similarity between poetry and art, and found that art and poetry have imagination in common. Cal listratos expanded these ideas by stating that as much as the art of the poets and writers of prosaic literature is inspired, so are the hands of sculptors. They, too, are gifted with the blessing of divine inspiration. The novelty of these postulates follows from the fact that Greeks had applied the concepts of imagination and inspiration to poetry only, but not to the visual arts. The Greek language had no word for creating, whereas Latin had. Creare and facere were two Latin words corresponding to the Greek à Ã¢â€š ¬ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Yet, initially the two Latin terms had almost the same meaning (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 246), and were thus interchangeable. Christianity Under medieval Christianity, the Latin â€Å"creatio† came to designate Gods act of â€Å"creatio ex nihilo† (i.e. creation from nothing). â€Å"Creatio† thus no longer could apply to human activities. Its meaning differed from the meaning of â€Å"facere† (to make). Applied to human activities, facere was the only word to be used. Cassiodorus, the important statesman and writer of the 6th century, explained that things made and created differ, because we can make but cannot create. His important works on this topic, written after his retirement, include De anima (published 540), Institutiones Divinarum et Saecularium Litterarum (published probably 543-555), and De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Litterarum [Tatarkiewicz 1980, p. 247]. This more or less â€Å"secular† interpretation of creativity collided with the archaic views of some Christian writers. To begin with, they believed that art did not belong to the realm of creativity. In this respect they had the same belief as the Greeks. Medieval Christian writers granted no exception to poetry. They claimed that poetry had to follow its rules. Therefore it was an art, i. e. a craft rather than a creative activity. The dominant figure among these writers was St. Augustine, a personality whose works are of interest even today. He is claimed to have used the word imagination as a precursor to creativity. Imagination, according to St. Augustine comprised disposition, multiplication, reduction, extension, ordering, any kind of re-composition of images, etc. (Rodari, 1983). These very same components of â€Å"imagination† are used even today [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 247]. Further changes were recorded in the Middle Ages: poetrys exceptional status was gradually revoked, because poetry had its rules. It was thus regarded as an art, i. e. a craft, rather than creativity. The new, religious interpretation of the expression notwithstanding, the opinion that art is not related to creativity persisted. The works of two influential early Christian writers, Pseudo-Dionysius and St. Augustine, prove it. The same can be said the works of Hraban the Moor and Robert Grosseteste, in the 13th century. Renaissance There are two periods in European history, called the Renaissance. The first one is the 12th century Renaissance. It was a period of many innovative and creative cahnges during the High Middle Ages, such as social, political and economic transformations. Parallel developments in philosophy and science resulted in an intellectual revitalization of Europe. The second renaissance is the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century. Some historians claim that the changes having taken place in the Middle Ages paved the way to the Italian Renaissance, as well as to the scientific developments of the 17th century. The French historian Jacques le Goff, an agnostic, argues that the Middle Ages formed an entirely new civilization, distinct from both the Greco-Roman antiquity, and from the modern world. The medieval achievements of the human mind and the human hands can only be related briefly. The First Rrenaissance . The most creative political acts of the 12th century were the founding of the Hansa in Northern Europe (along the southern shore of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, with a few excursions deeper into Central Europe), the Crusades, the rise of towns, and the rise of the early bureaucratic states. In the cultural sphere the vernaculars began to replace Latin increasingly, higher education became more prominent, with universities sprouting all around the European continent between the Atlantic and the Theisse river, the Romanesque art was gradually replaced by the Gothic art, the liturgical drama, and a European system of law was established. These changes are true milestones. In the arts, more emphasis was put on architecture and sculpture, while in parallel there was a revival of interest in Latin poetry and Latin classics. An outer expansion began in the late 13th century, when the Venetian explorer Marco Polo set out to follow the Silk Road to China. His doc umentary Il Milone made Europeans more aware of the Far East, which inspired many missionaries (Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and others) to go east and spread Christianity. The greatest leaps of human knowledge were, however, recorded in science and technology. Since Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhazen, 965-1039) laid down the foundations of the scientific method, the emphasis was put on seeking truth. Science thus became a formal discipline, different from philosophy. In early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire, the most advanced culture of antiquity, suffered losses and a decline in its scientific capacity. Likewise, Western Europe, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, suffered a catastrophic loss of knowledge. This was partially offset by the efforts of Church scholars, like Aquinas and Buridan, who preserved elements of scientific inquiry. In that manner, by translating and imitating the works of Islamic scholars Europe could begin catching up with the scientific discoveries of the Islamic world, the Mediterranean basin, India, and China. The most important steps to Europes scientific recovery at that time comprise the following events: Development of the scientific method (Alhazen, Biruni, Bacon, and Grosseteste); Arithmetic and Algebra (Al-Khwarizmi); Differential calculus (Bhaskara); Mechanics (Avicenna, with a later contribution by Ibn Bajjah, also known as Avempace, Buridan, Galileo, Descartes and Newton); Optics(Aristotle, Plato, Galen, Euclid, Hero of Alexandria, Ptolemaeus. In the 10th century, Alhazen proved empirically that light propagates linearly;Robert Grosseteste developed a theory of optics based on the works of al-Kindi and Ptolemaeus. Roger Bacon expanded on Grossetestess theory and integrated Alhazens optics into it. Finally, Kepler was able to use the foregoing findings to develop the modern theory of optics); Surgery(Abulcasis or Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi developed procedures and instruments of modern surgery, such as the scalpel, syringe, vaginal speculum, etc.). In 1266, Theodo ric Borgogni published his Chirurgia, in which he advocates antiseptic surgery); Alchemy and Chemistry (The Jaberian Corpus, written in the 10th century by the Brotherhood of Purity (Ismaylia), the Summa Perfectionis, by Paulus de Tarento, the Secret of Secrets by al-Razi (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi);Trigonometry (al-Tusi, Regiomontanus and Puerbach made these methods wider known in the 15th century); Navigation (the astrolabe and the portable compass, Peter de Maricourt); Accurate lunar models(Ibn al-Shatir; Copernicus is believed to have relied on al-Shatirs model); Incendiary weapons and bombs (flame-throwers, land- and sea-mines, and rockets). Among important technological accomplishments and developments, the following can be listed: The windmill, first mentioned in 1185 (England); Paper manufacture began around 1270 (Italy); The spinning wheel (13th century); The magnetic compass for navigation, and the astrolabe (toward the end of the 13th century); Eyeglasses, in the late 13th century (Italy); The Hindu-Arabic numerals introduced to Europe in 1202 with the book Liber Abaci by Leonardo of Pisa; The stern-mounted rudder, which can be found on church carvings. The philosophy developed in the Middle Ages was the Scholasticism. It is founded on a reinterpretation of the works of Aristotle, with further refinements by scholars like Avicenna, Averroes, Albertus Magnus, Bonaventure, and Abà ©lard. Scholasticism believes in empirical studies, and its practitioners supported the Catholic Church. Perhaps the most famous practitioner of Scholasticism was Thomas of Aquinas. His Philosophy of mind teaches that the mind of a newborn baby is a tabula rasa that was given the ability to think, and to recognize forms, patterns, or ideas through a divine spark. In the late Middle Ages, the rate of scientific progress declined significantly due to the decline of the Muslim empires and the Byzantine Empire. This situation lasted until after the Renaissance. The Italian Reanaissance. The Italian Reanaissance brought further changes into the mode of thinking and lifestyle of people. The Renaissance philosophy is that of Humanism, which perhaps is more a method of learning than a philosophy per se. An approximate, but generally accepted definition of Humanism is â€Å"the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome†. Unlike the medieval scholars, humanists would apply a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence in reading and appraising ancient texts in the original. Humanist education focused on the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, rhetoric, and moral philosophy. Above all, humanists asserted mans genius and the ability of the human mind, which is unique and extraordinary. Humanism is more secular in some aspects, but it unquestionably developed against a Christian backdrop, particularly in the Northern Renaissance. That period gave mankind some outstanding theologians, all of them followers of the humanist method. They include Zwingli, Calvin, Thomas More, Erasmus, and Martin Luther. In particular, Dr Martin Luther must be viewed as the liberator of the human soul, with whatever effect it had on subsequent cataclysmic developments in society, science, business, and trade. Although the people of the Renaissance were well aware of their freedom and creativity, the term creativity was not established yet. It was not until the 17th-century that the word â€Å"creativity† was applied for the first time. The man behind it was Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595-1640), also known as â€Å"the last Latin poet†. Sarbiewaski applied the term only to poetry. In his treatise, De perfecta poesi, he wrote that a poet â€Å"invents,† and creates anew (â€Å"de novo creat†) in the manner of God (â€Å"instar Dei†) (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). Other arts, in Sarbiewskis opinion, do not create. They merely imitate and copy. Why Sarbiewski regarded creativity as something that only poetry could be associated with, thus excluding visual arts, follows from his opinion that arts (other than poetry) imitate and copy, rather than create, in that they assume the material from which they create is already available, and so is the subject. At the end of the 17th century Andrà © Fà ©libien (1619-75) called the painter â€Å"a creator†. Spanish Jesuit Baltasà ¡r Gracià ¡n (1601-58) saw art as the second Creator that complements nature. This formulation is reminiscent of Sarbiewskis formulations (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). In the 18th century, the occurrence of the concept of creativity in art theory kept increasing. It was complemented with the concept of imagination. In Joseph Addisons opinion imagination â€Å"has something in it like creation†. A similar opinion was held by Voltaire (1740). These authors, however, equated only poet with creator (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248-9). Contrary views proliferated, too, particularly in France. Diderot worked with imagination, which he viewed merely as â€Å"the memory of forms and contents†, which â€Å"creates nothing†. It only combines, magnifies or diminishes. â€Å"The human mind cannot create†, wrote Charles Batteux. He, too, saw its products as displaying the stigmata of the model used. Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-80) and Luc de Clapiers, known as marquis de Vauvenargues (1715-47), proposed similar ideas (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249). There were three reasons why they rejected the idea of human creativity: Creation was at that time reserved for creation ex nihilo. The latter was beyond mans abilities. Creation is a mysterious act. Enlightenment psychology, however, had no room for mysteries. Artists of that time age observed their rules. Creativity, however, seemed irreconcilable with rules. The third objection was, however, weak. Houdar de la Motte (1715) was one of the thinkers who suggested that rules, too, â€Å"are a human invention† (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249). The philosopher Marsilio Ficino wrote that the artists work is the result of thinking it up (â€Å"excogitatio†). Leon Battista Alberti, the theoretician of architecture and painting, claimed that he preordains (â€Å"preordinazione†), and Raphael claimed that his ideas shape his painting. Universal genius Leonardo da Vinci claimed that it was his idea that determined how his painting was shaped, using shapes that do not exist in nature. Another painter, Raphael Santi, too, claimed that he painted according to his ideas. Giorgio Vasari claimed that nature is conquered by art. Paolo Pino, the art theoretician from Venice claimed that painting is â€Å"inventing what is not†. Likewise, Paolo Veronese declared that painters take the same liberties as they were poets and madmen. â€Å"A new world, new paradises†was what an artist shapes, maintained Federico Zuccari. Cesare Cesariano extended this to architects whom he considered â€Å"demi-gods.† In the realm of music, according to the Dutch composer and musicologist Jan Tinctoris, a composer was â€Å"one who produces new songs†. He thus associated novelty with a composers work. Writers on poetry were even more consequent. Capriano claimed that poetic inventions spring â€Å"from nothing†. Francesco Patrizi held that poetry was a â€Å"fiction†, â€Å"shaping†, and â€Å"transformation† (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). The developments in the Renaissance science were as dynamic as in the arts. Science and the arts were intermingled, which manifests best in the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He made observational drawings of nature and anatomy, set up and conducted controlled experiments in water-flow and aerodynamics, systematic study of motion, and medical dissection. Leonardo devised principles of scientific research method in the spirit of holistic, non-mechanistic and non-reductive approach popular today. Leonardo deserves the epithet â€Å"the father of modern science†. The focus on the process for discovery, the scientific method, corroborated by influential proponents such as Copernicus and Galileo, is perhaps the most significant development of that time. This revolutionary way of learning about the world stressed the importance of empirical evidence, as well as the importance of mathematics, rather than highlighting a given discovery. Age of Reason In the 18th century, the Age of Reason and Change, the concept of creativity appeared more frequently in art theory. Once again, famous personalities needed an ancillary concept to explain and justify creativity. One such concept was that of imagination. It was first used in 1712 by the English essayist, poet and publisher Joseph Addison. He published 11 essays on imagination in The Spectator. In one essay he claims that only the sense of sight supplies ideas to the imagination. He speculated about a congruence between imagiantion and creativity. By the same time, the famous French author and philosopher Franà §ois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire distinguished between passive and active imagination. On the latter he wrote in his Dictionnaire philosophique that â€Å"Active imagination is that which joins combination and reflection to memory. It brings near to us many objects at a distance; it separates those mixed together, compounds them, and changes them; it seems to create, while in fa ct it merely arranges; for it has not been given to man to make ideas-he is only able to modify them†. Voltaire continued: â€Å"This gift of nature is an imagination inventive in the arts in the disposition of a picture, in the structure of a poem.† Both authors thus indicate that poets are creative, and they equate poet with creator. Modern times The resistance against recognizing art as creativity, seen in the preceding centuries, crumbled totally in the 19thcentury. Now art gained recognition as creativity and, moreover, art alone was regarded as creativity. At the turn of the 20th century discussion of creativity in the art as well as in the sciences, e.g. by Jan Ã…Â ukasiewicz (Sinisi, 2004), and in nature (cf. Bergson, 1907) began. At this point concepts proper to art were applied to the sciences and to nature [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249]. There was, however, a long waiting time to the scientific study of creativity. The thinking of some modern time scholars will be expounded in the subsequent chapter. The beginning of scientific study of creativity is generally taken to be J. P. Guilfords address to the American Psychological Association in 1950. Many scholars joined in the effort to explore creativity in the years to come. They took a more pragmatic approach to this esoteric subject. As creativity became established as a discipline, scholars realized that creativity depends on being practiced. Creativity reveals itself in accomplishments and deeds, rather than in words. While a sound theoretical approach still was important, more and more emphasis was put on developing practical creativity techniques. Important personalities illustrating this approach include Alex Osborn, who in the 1950s invented brainstorming. In the same decade, Genrikh Altov, later calling himself Altshuller, came up with his â€Å"Theory of Inventive Problem Solving†, better known as TRIZ. In the 1960, Edward de Bono became famous after having developed his influential theory of â€Å"Lateral thinkin g.† These and other theories and techniques are expounded in more detail in subsequent chapters.

Introduction To Personal Development Plan Personal Development Essay

Introduction To Personal Development Plan Personal Development Essay 1. Introduction to Personal Development Plan: Personal Development Plan (PDP) refers to activities that improve self-knowledge and identity, develop talents and potential, build human capital and employability, enhance quality of life and contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations. The concept is not limited to self-development but includes formal and informal activities for developing others as well. Finally as personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems that support human development at the individual level in organizations. A personal development plan is a meticulously designed program which uses psychological tools such as the Personal Effectiveness Scale and created in order to create an understanding between a reviewer and an employee of an organization on important areas of development keeping in mind the ways in which these needs would be supported. PDPs are usually developed in companies and it acknowledges th e plan discussed between the employer and employee. 2. Purpose: In this assignment I want to create Personal Development Plan for myself through which I would try to focus on the areas where I need to work upon in order to achieve my short, medium and long-term objectives. So to start the process of developing a PDP for myself I would like to start with my introduction and my career path till date and my future objectives. I work in an Indian government financial organization as an investment consultant at the commercial investment section and my career objective would be to become the manager of companys zonal branch in next 3-4 years. My aim is to open my own financial invest farm for commercial investors in next 5-6 years. 3. Objectives: Short term To improve my performance to get better output using my strong points. Medium term To enhance my day to day working knowledge and to further improve my own ability to perform at a certain level consistently. Long term To help myself with self evaluation of my strong and weak points and build upon the ability to sustain continuous growth and keep growing. Short term To improve my performance to get better output using my strong points. Target Period 6 Months Organisational objectives Try to implement the plan and increase the amount of loans to the needed people and organisations. Learnings to suffice the above requirement To perfect and constantly evaluate my skills. Need to perform to achieve the above Need to attend courses and complete reviews by the senior management people. Support resources I might need to join a specific and planned course and which might require some money to be invested. What immediate success am I looking at To raise my performance at an exceptionally good level by the end of 1st year with the help of learnings and feedback provided on the above. Target period to accomplish the above target Though I am looking at a time frame of 6 months but would be pushing it to achieve as soon as possible. Medium term To enhance my day to day working knowledge and to further improve my own ability to perform at a certain level consistently. Target Period 6 months Objectives towards achieving organizational and departmental goals Learning and enhancing my knowledge on the subject by implementation of own PDP and bringing the knowledge on day to day performance. Facts that I need o learn Constantly evaluate self performance and find out new paths of improvement in anything and everything I require to perform. What myself need to do to achieve the above Need to attend some specific courses related to my work field and try to learn as much as possible from the experienced seniors at work and also get review on my learnings. Kind of resources I would require to support the above expected achievement Might need to join a specific and planned course and which might require some money to be invested. What will be my expected success To have a clear self understanding of what I am doing and what is my expected outcome in near future. Target period to accomplish the above target Planned time frame is 6 months but expecting to achieve by end of 4-5 months. Long term To help myself with self evaluation of my strong and weak points and build upon the ability to sustain continuous growth and keep growing. Time period 1 to 4 years Organizational and departmental objectives Implementation of my PDP and enhance my knowledge in financial domain and increase my work experience to be able to reach the managerial level of the organization with remarkable remuneration package within 2-3 years and then to open my own investment company to help small time investors in the state. What would I need to learn and apply to achieve the above To be perfect in my work keeping the process in place and keeping an eye on constant evaluation of self financial and managerial skills, work hard and climb the corporate ladder at the earliest. What will I need to do to achieve the above To attend available courses, Learn from experienced sources. Keep the performance level at an exceptional standard. Create a network of high and influential people both from inside and outside of organization. Create favorable environment in my organization. Completion of self reviews on a regular and timely basis. What kind of resources and support I would need to support the above expectation Need to be get closer with influential clients and higher management people of the organization which might involve some cost in way of entertaining them and provide them with some help in completing and meeting their demand. To create a network of powerful and influential people for myself. Target period to accomplish the above Planned time frame is 1 4 years but expecting to achieve by end of 3 years. 4. Professional Skills: To be a successful and effective manager some skills are required, which help in performing well in the job and simultaneously grow vertically in the career ladder. I have classified the roles based on various important tasks that I would expect to perform in the organization. Task-based skill This skill helps a manager to properly plan to execute complex tasks, manage projects and run an efficient operation, it also helps in planning, organizing and monitoring performance on a regular basis. It is also important to be results oriented, to be someone who constantly conveys a sense of urgency and has the perseverance to get things done under tight time pressures. This also help to be able to build resilience to bounce back following setbacks and to build the power within to not to get defeated easily and sustain in crunchy situations. Team based skill This skill helps a manager in identifying and appointing associate or model leaders to learn and develop leadership skills and qualities. This also helps to foster team spirit and setting up benchmark for performances. This is the most important factor to groom team members. This skill facilitates the presence of necessary infrastructure supports and integrating tem members. Team member based skills This skill specifically helps the manager to identify the talent among team members. This helps the manager to nurture the talent of the members in sync with the organizational goals. This is also important quality to assign and balance team members needs and the most importantly to appreciate the performance of each individual team member as and when necessary. My learnings on positive managerial and leadership skills: In my earlier employment with the Bajaj Allianz life insurance I had a chance demonstrate my managerial skill which worked in a very positive way to get my new job where I am in now. I had to suggest one of our client the best option to invest his money. To work out the best result for him, I did my research on all the available options and studied the pros and cons of all kind of investments options like investment in a market linked insurance fund, directly buying shares or debentures from stock market, investment in bonds or confirmed minimum returns on investments like fixed deposits, mutual funds etc and provided him with my suggestion which was a market linked infrastructure bond along with a health insurance. The return received by the client made him give a positive feedback about my commercial insight and which in turn helped me create goodwill for my company. This also helped me create a long term relationship with the client as well as build my network of people ensuring t hat I can always expect him to reach out to me for his future investments and in turn can use his contacts and influence to help me in future. In Bajaj Allianz, I had also been allotted the responsibility of providing training to newly joined insurance agents and the field and trainee managers who were newly inducted in the company. This was vital help and knowledge gain for me to nurture and polish my people management skill as I was responsible to train people with the product knowledge as well as the rules and regulations of the company as well as the companys position and field of operations in the market. This helped me a lot in understanding our target audience and helps them understanding the products and the company in the most efficient way as possible. This role and my performance were very instrumental to judge my leadership and management skill from the positive feedback of the trainees. 5. Personal skills: Communication Communication is one of the most important tool which needs to be used very effectively when it comes to being a manager or a leader. It can be formal or informal, work related or non work related, can be personal or impersonal, creative or factual. Thoughts or messages may be conveyed verbally, in writing or nonverbally, but it is always very important that whichever subject or whatever mode it is conveyed, it is clear to both the owner and the receiver. There are many instances where examples of each communication approach may have been successfully applied and at the same time things have gone wrong just due to the improper communication, be it at work, at home or at the most highest level of society including government communication. Written Person should be able to express himself loud and clear in written communication. Be it writing essays for school or writing an application for a job, creating his bio-data, research thesis, day to day email communications, anywhere and everywhere it is very important to be clear about what he or she is trying to convey and to be sure the person at the other end is clear about the message. Verbal As he word goes that speech out of mouth and arrow out of bow can never be returned back, so it is highly important that we choose words before any verbal communication is made. Be I formal or informal, person should be well efficient and double clear about conveying thoughts easily and getting engaged with other people. It is also to be kept in mind the mode by which message is conveyed, whether socially among friends or in a gathering or on telephone. Body Language Another most important but highly ignored way of communication is the persons self body language. Person has to have the ability to match is own body language appropriately to what he or she is trying to convey verbally. It is the presence and display of body language which supports the verbal communication heavily in every places, be it at work or at a public gathering or be it in a social function. The eye contact, gestures and postures, movement, expressions everything is highly counted when it comes to any communication to take place and to produce the desired outcome. 6. Working in team: Its very important and highly noticed by the management of any organization is that how well a manager can work with the fellow team members. Its valued at a very high level, not only in case of work but otherwise in all respect, its important to demands to have good skill to work with others and create a positive environment. The factors which are included in this skill set are as below. Co-operation A person should have the quality to be able to co-operate with all level of people in all kind of situations. Its highly important to be able to bring into effect the co-cooperativeness in both way, from the person himself and to get the same from others, which plays a big role in accomplishing any target. Not only work but any group activity like in sports, or group discussion or for that matter preparing project report, in every cases co-operation in a positive way is very important. Importance of sensitivity It is this skill which makes a person close and valuable to others. Ability to understand the need and offer help and respond is very important, regardless of age and level. A person who can reach out to anyone and display his sensibility to help others to handle situation is one of the best quality one should develop. Quality of negotiation Its important to reach at a logical end and desired outcome, but it does not happen always that you are in win win situation. In day to day activity also a person needs to be flexible enough to sometime negotiate and compromise to reach at a winning outcome. It is not always that the person or organization you are dealing with very understanding, rather it is highly common that people are reluctant to think the way you are thinking, especially when it comes to government organization and bureaucratic run departments. Leadership quality This is purely team oriented. How good a person in conveying his ideas to fellow members and provide them with a feeling that they are important for the success and most importantly motivate and encourage each individual member in all situation to give their best for the overall success is the best quality a leader can wish for. 7. Problem solving qualities To have the skill to generate ideas to solve any kind of problems and bring an end to issues and conflicts are counted as the problem solving skill of a person. Planning and organizing The ability develop a well thought plan and set the required sequence of systematic process and ideas are part of a successful result in every part of day o day to life. Planning is one thing and organizing the required requirements and executing them as per plan comes under a persons perfect organizing skill. It also comes handy when we think about simply organizing a group, party or get together or for that matter clients demonstration, a proper planning and execution through seamless organizing skill is highly important. Creativity Generating new ideas or reusing existing solutions in a new way is what it matters when it comes to handling a situation or solving a problem. Its not always that we need to come up with new approach or ideas to deal with a situation, but we should be able to use any existing methods in a better way and apply the same in a different approach depending on the kind and nature of issues. Research and analysis Doing a thorough research on the subject and gathering all sort of required informations plays a vital role to derive at a successful outcome. Not only gathering informations but then analyzing the same in respect of the situation and nature of the issue gives a chance in most of the cases that the result is expected in a positive way. 8. Self learning and improving performance Self development This talks about knowing self strength and weakness. It is the most important skill a human being needs to develop to grow and find out his ultimate goal in life. Understanding his own strength and weakness about his personal ability, educational capability and career goal is what makes a person to reach where he wants to. On personal front he or she needs to know which skill is better in him and which is the strong point he can bank upon to pursue his career. On educational front its not only the normal study what is basic, but it is the self evaluation of his progress, constant review and correction towards his targets which is very important. As per the career development, it is very important to be clear and focused towards the ultimate goal in his career. He has to be firm on his decision on what he wants to be and work constantly towards reaching that level. Leaning To be able to learn from all available situations and apply the same learnings in different contexts as and when required. Its not only books, but learning from day to day experience, from playing a game, working at home, nurturing his hobby, learning can be from anything and every situation a person come across, but what is important to find out whether we apply the same when we face any situation, thats more important. It is the transfer of our learning experience from one situation to another situation is what we need to be good at. Logical reasoning Person should have to be able to use his reasoning skill and logical thinking towards defending an argument or making a statement. A planning without any logical reasoning in place can never produce positive result. He has to foresee the effects of the planning in advance and that is only possible when he can think logically and apply the proper reasoning behind the decision taken or else it can only produce an adverse result. Self judgment One of the most important skill is to be able to judge and question his own performance. Unless a person can reflect on his own performance and find out where he stands as per his expectation and critique his sort falls, he can never revaluate and find out the reason and also the answers for the incorrect result. It is self judgment and revaluation which can work as the corrective measure and can rebuild the situation and change the failure to success. Study skill To enhance knowledge on subject from finding more and more informations from people around and relevant sources. Going through different educative materials, gathering informations from journals, available notes, collecting ideas from reference books from library, going through thesis, finding documents available on net there are so many ways of increase your study skill and enhance self-knowledge on the subject which will only make you stronger and firm while talking on the subject or when taking decisions. 9. Audit on self assessment: Questionnaire Now to find where I stand as per my target achievement and planning and evaluate my progress, I need to create a set of questionnaire and mark myself depending on the options of answers. I need to find out what is my score on each question there can be four options Answers Marks 1. Strongly Disagree 1 2. Tend to disagree 2 3. Tend to agree 3 4. Strongly agree 4 Communication Reading skill Questions Marks Am I good enough in reading both study materials and others Am I good enough in finding information from different sources Am I well versed with finding informations from electronic media Am I capable enough to go through and understand the materials after reading Can I create documents from the above informations when I work on assignments or projects Am I able to read texts or documents and summarize the gist of what the author had tried to convey __________________ Total Marks Obtained 22 (4+4+4+4+3+3) Communication Writing skill Questions Marks Am I good enough in writing both study related or normal communication Am I good enough in expressing my ideas and views Do I plan and develop ideas in mind before penning it down How good am I when it come to grammar or spelling Am I capable enough to create documents as per specifications of department or course or the institution standard Am I good enough to create notes from a lecture or group discussions or a presentation or any demonstration __________________ Total Marks Obtained 21 (4+3+4+4+3+2) Communication Verbal Questions Marks Am I clear when I engage myself in any verbal communication Am I good enough in conveying and explaining concepts or ideas to group of people Am I good enough in giving a presentation using slides, graphs, charts, diagrams Do I listen carefully to others and try to understand their point of views Can I always come to a logical conclusions keeping both my own and others views Am I good enough in getting involvement of people when I discuss or convey or present _____________________ Total Marks Obtained 18 (4+2+2+4+3+3) Team Work Questions Marks Am I a good team member Am I clear in understanding the target goal and achievement of the team Do I agree and work towards achieving the teams target Am I sensitive enough about each fellow team members roles in achieving success Am I good enough in monitoring the teams progress and efforts and bring forward challenges faced by the team towards achieving target Given a chance would I be able to lead a team _____________________ Total Marks Obtained 21 (4+4+4+4+3+2) Problem Solving Questions Marks Am I skilled enough to break down a big task in small executable part Do I look for help when I cannot get through the problem rather than wasting time Do I enjoy the challenge in solving problems and feel happy at the end Do I plan and do a brainstorm session involving the team members as and when necessary before getting started Do I foresee the possible outcome before I carry the task out Am I flexible and capable enough to look for alternate solutions depending on situations and progress rate _____________________ Total Marks Obtained 21 (3+4+4+3+3+4) Self learnings and personal effectiveness Questions Marks Am I organized at my work and organize my tasks in order to meet target and deadlines Do I constantly evaluate self progress towards meeting the target Am I clear about my strength and weakness about planning and meeting targets on time Am I capable enough to find help and support to complete assigned tasks Am I clear about my future targets about my career Do I discuss my thoughts with people around _____________________ Total Marks Obtained 21 (4+3+4+4+4+2) Grand Total 124 Deriving at my strength and weakness based on the above self assessment audit: Strengths From above audit I can see that my strengths are good communication skill, being a good team member, inclination towards solving problem etc I would always try to use these strong points very effectively to manage work and towards achieving my objectives in career. Weaknesses I can see my weaknesses in the fields of creating documents, making presentation, lack of confidence in leading a team and being little introvert. I would definitely work towards fixing these issues at the earliest with the help of my strength. 10. Result Evaluation: The result is not quite surprising to me as I knew some of my weaknesses. Though I am always a good team member and my communications are good but I am not good in making presentations and creating documents. I also lack in taking quick decisions sometime. But to me, the bigger issue seems like my lack of confidence in leading people. I am little introvert and not very vocal which might have led to me being less confident. 11. Action Plan: Development Area: Presentation Skills / Leadership Quality / Decision Making The plan is to conduct mock sessions and practice as much as possible. This would prevent me from any kind fear in me when presenting real-time. After all, presenting a piece of information in a compelling manner is vital to a manager and there is gets all the more necessary to get groomed on the presentation skills. Also I hope these training sessions will let me gain the confidence to present in front of crowd or a business group. I would join some short courses, attend seminars and workshops on effective leadership quality development, though I am always a good team player but I need to gain the confidence and quality of leading a team as well. I also would work with some senior level management people who are at decision making authority level to find out more on the skill and try to improve upon. 12. Conclusion: From my self prepared PDP, I am quite confident that I am on the right path and also confident that I can overcome the weaknesses I have in some specific fields with help from internal and external sources and also would try to use my strong points to dominate over my weaknesses. I want t be on the right track and would want to see myself as a role model for people who wants to succeed in financial sector and want to reach to the managerial level and start his own entrepreneurship.

Battle of Gen X and Gen Y Essay -- essays research papers

The Battle of Gen X and Gen Y There ¡Ã‚ ¦s no doubt about it, the newest diversity issue in the workplace is age diversity. Many organizations have finally figured out how to recruit young talent only to watch them drive down a collision course with seasoned employees over issues like work ethic, respect for authority, dress code and every work arrangement imaginable. And they're not sure what to do about it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With this paper, I decided to take this concept because of the people that I have to work with on a continual basis. They are usually people from the Generation X trying to communicate with Generation Y. Just the other day I heard from someone I am working with,  ¡Ã‚ §Those god d*&# young kids don ¡Ã‚ ¦t want to work. Then they have to ask  ¡Ã‚ ¥Why do I have to learn this anyways? ¡Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¨ I just sit back, smile, and think to myself there has to be an easier way in getting the information highway open to people no matter what the age. Good communication skills are essential to get any message across and there are many times our verbal and written messages are not received and interpreted as intended. That is why I chose to look at the Generations of X and Y. I first had to define what a generation is. A generation, loosely defined, is a group of people who can be demographically identified by biological trends and have shared experiences (Stephens Generation X Site, 2004). I did a little research first on the Generation Y babies (1980-1994). These young adults are in a league all their own. This generation has a hopeful outlook, a determined work ethic, and gets turned off by promiscuity (Mcai-mn.org, 2004). This generation also likes a direct communication approach. No surprise, they get along well with the over sixty generation. They have a global perspective, and this may be due to the pace of technological change in the last twenty years that promotes communication without barriers. When you look at this group closer, they are able to adapt rapidly, innovate constantly, accept others easily and rebound quickly. They have the time, tools, and the talent to create a better world and better results. Now those Generation X ¡Ã‚ ¦s have there own fond little quirks too! They were brought up on television, Atari 2600s and personal computers. They are the generation that was raised in the 1970s and 1980s, and saw this country undergo a selfish... ... 30 years of age. Considering that the average starting salary of a college graduate in 2000 hovered around $38,000, while more and more organizations are figuring out ways to flex schedules, work locations, and job descriptions, Gen Yers may be more realistic than those who scoff at their ambition. I haven ¡Ã‚ ¦t found out yet if it has worked or not. I am sure hoping it is because when researching this topic it brought me to my own realizations on what I expect. I need to place more value on asking people what they expect instead of placing my own biases on what I think they want. Reference Page Business Week Online Official Website. Managing Generation X ¡XPart One on September, 2001. Retrieved on March 5, 2004 from http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/sep2001/sb20010928_113.htm Jennifer Jochim, Outpost Contributor. Reality shreds myths about Gen X. Retrieved on March 5, 2004 from http://www.jour.unr.edu/outpost/specials/genx.overvw2.html MCIA official website. Retrieved on March 5, 2004 from http://www.mcai-mn.org/resources/articles_generations_0412.html Stephen ¡Ã‚ ¦s Generation X site. Retrieved on March 5, 2004 from http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/genxintro.htm.

MMX Technology :: essays research papers fc

MMX TM Technology The MMX TM Technology extension to the Intel Architecture is designed to accelerate multimedia and communications software running on Intel Architecture processors (Peleg and Weiser). The technology introduces new data types and instructions that implement a SIMD architecture model and is defined in a way that maintains full compatibility with all existing Intel Architecture processors, operating systems, and applications. MMX technology on average delivers 1.5 to 2 times performance gains for multimedia and communications applications in comparison to running on the same processor but without using MMX technology. This extension is the most significant addition to the Intel Architecture since the Intel I386 and will be implemented on proliferation of the Pentium processor family and also appear on future Intel Architecture processors. The media extensions for the Intel Architecture (IA) were designed to enhance performance of advanced media and communication applications. The MMXâ„ ¢ technology provides a new level of performance to computer platforms by adding new instructions and defining new 64-bit data types, while preserving compatibility with software and operating systems developed for the Intel Architecture. The MMX technology introduces new general-purpose instructions. These instructions operate in parallel on multiple data elements packed into 64-bit quantities. They perform arithmetic and logical operations on the different data types. These instructions accelerate the performance of applications with compute-intensive algorithms that perform localized, recurring operations on small native data. This includes applications such as motion video, combined graphics with video, image processing, audio synthesis, speech synthesis and compression, telephony, video conferencing, 2D graphics, and 3D graphics The MMX instruction set has a simple and flexible software model with no new mode or operating-system visible state. The MMX instruction set is fully compatible with all Intel Architecture microprocessors. All existing software continues to run correctly, without modification, on microprocessors that incorporate the MMX technology, as well as in the presence of existing and new applications that incorporate this technology. MMX technology provides the following new features, while maintaining backward compatibility with all existing Intel Architecture microprocessors, IA applications, and operating systems; New data types, eight MMX registers, enhanced instruction set. The performance of applications which use these new features of MMX technology can be exchanged. The principal data type of the IA MMX technology is the packed fixed-point integer. The decimal point of the fixed-point values is implicit and is left for the user to control for maximum flexibility.

Dell Case Study Essay -- Business and Management Studies

Dell Case study. In this report we are going to analyse the business environment of the computer industry in the form of a PESTE which stands for Political, Economical, Social-Cultural, Technological and Environmental. We feel that it is important to analyse the environment of a business as it will help the business to identify the Opportunities and Threats surrounding it. Using the case study of Dell we have identified the following opportunities and threats of the computer industry. Political There are a number of political issues, that large organisations such as Dell must consider when expanding or operating in different countries. Obviously government in the western world have different ideals to the countries in other regions. Rules and regulations in different countries would reflect their different ideals; so in order for companies to be successful, they must have a good understanding about how different governments operate. As stated in the case, patents and trademarks are prevalent in the computer industry, so it is important for organisations to develop good relations with different governments. Other elements that must be considered include: Currency exchange rates, taxation and employment law, labour conditions and political stabilities. Organisations should also understand different governments’ attitudes towards monopolies and competition. Economical Opportunities: 1) The computer industry is predicted to continue to grow in volume over the years. It is expected to grow between 15-20% over the next 3-5 years. This is influenced by the development of the internet and the global expansion opportunities. 2) The foreign markets like Asia and china were previously not accessible due to their political and economical environment. However the situation has changed eliminating barriers thus is now readily accessible; this is a big opportunity for the computer industry to grow in these regions. Threats: 1) Economical changes around the world can affect the computer industry. The biggest threat to the industry is the instability of the world market, for example Dell opened a new manufacturing facility in Brazil and the changes in the South American economical conditions could thus affect the company. 2) The currency fluctuation in different regions can affec... ...mation Ltd (2003) â€Å"European IT chiefs plan more investment in 2004 (analysts' views)† Computer Weekly, 9th of September - Ziff Davis Media Inc (2003) â€Å"HP Promotes PC Recycling† eWeek, 6th of February - Reed Business Information Ltd (2003) â€Å"Suppliers introduce price incentives to get users to invest in the latest PC hardware† Computer Weekly, 14th October - Simon Quicke (2003) â€Å"Suppliers' views; Top supply executives predict market upturn† Computer Weekly, 9th September, Reed Business Information Ltd - Adam Lashinsky (2000) â€Å"The Wired Investor: Once the drivers of the great bull market, PC makers have seen their stocks battered and bruised. The question is: Do they still deserve a place in your portfolio† Fortune, 18th December - Ben Elgin (2003) â€Å"Hitting the Delete on Compaq† Business Week, 14th of April, The McGraw-Hill Companies - Ziff Davis Media Inc (2003) â€Å"Dell Entering Consumer Electronics Market† eWeek, 25th of September - Andrew Park; Faith Keenan; Cliff Edwards (2002) â€Å"Whose Lunch will Dell Eat Next? Now, it's moving into printers, storage, and handhelds† Business Week, 12th of August, The McGraw-Hill Companies

Pervapertion Overview

Membrane selectivity : what goes through and what gets rejected 2. Flux: Denote the amount of output (measured in relation to membrane area , thickness and time). What will influence the performance? Feed temperature: Refers to temperature of the feed stock or any other representative between feed and retentate streams. Membrane thickness: Refers to dry thickness. 3. Kinetic diameter: diameter of pore needed to let a specific molecule passPerformance Parameters – Selectivity 0 Membrane selectivity allows us to choose certain molecules to pass through the membrane 0 Improved membrane selectivity will increase absorption rates 0 more efficient and possible cost reduction 0 This can be achieved by better understanding of the material selected for the membrane Impact of Feed Temperature on Flux 0 Feed Temperature 0 Molecules movement increases exponentially with temperature 0 improve flux rate Impact of Membrane Thickness on Flux The thinner the membrane, the faster Influencing Pa rameters – Kinetic Diameter (1)Kinetic diameter can be understood as the diameter of a pore needed to let that specific molecule pass Source: Fundamentals and applications of pervaporation through Zeolite membranes, 2004 Influencing Parameters – Kinetic Diameter (2) Key Cost Components For Pervaporation The operating cost of pervaporation is heavily reliant on the cost of generating heat and the cost of the membrane used Current trend: decreasing heating cost and decreasing membrane cost Source: http://www. scielo. org. ar/scielo. php? Decreasing Trend in Membrane Cost from 1989 to 2000 Reasons of decreasing membrane cost: .Membrane surface area per module increase 0 lesser membrane modules to produce the same amount of output 2. Membrane mass production 0 production cost decrease 3. More compact module 0 cost savings in civil works overview of UF technology today, Desalination 131 (2000) 17-25 Similar Decreasing Trend in Membrane Cost from 1970 to 2010 Source: America n Membrane Technology Association (AMTA), wrww. amtaorg. com Improvement in cost of heat generation -Cost of Conserved Energy (CCE) summarizes annual costs associated with saving a GJ (approximately 0. 95 MBtu) of energy with a particular measure.Table shows that energy efficient measures lead to energy savings that have short payback periods from immediate to 2. 7 years. -Industry is looking towards reducing cost of heat generation Improvements in membrane 1) Membrane preparation methods 0 more methods are developed to prepare membranes with different structures for different application 0 Phase separation method developed in 1960 0 Scanning Electron Microscope became available in 1960 0 helped in the detailed study of the membrane structure 2) Membrane selective layer is getting thinner over 30 years 0. 2 – 0. 4 pm

Educational Research Methods Essay

It is the research method conducted by subject teachers, course teachers and other schools staff side by side with their teaching. It is becoming increasingly popular as it encouragers to evaluate new methods in their work and study which is highly acceptable by all. It is the methods by which change can be noted and helps in understand the reaction of at one time, with action and critical reflection taking place. It is special type of research in education which mostly emphasize on continuous improvement in the field of teaching. There are three main goals of action research such as improvement of practice through continuous learning and problem solving, deep understanding of practice and development of action, improvement in the community through research. This research helps to gather detail information about the organization, vision and insight, a quest of new knowledge, a desired of improved performance, a self- reflective activity and willingness of effect change. It is basically conducted to discover plan for innovation and their successful implementation. It provides practical way of looking at owns work to check its efficiency of work. The Action Research is used to determine efficiency of study material, teaching techniques, classroom response and with their interest. There are numbers of outcomes of implementation of action research. Such as: †¢ Greater risk taking among the students and teachers helps them to identify new ways in their system. †¢ Comfort with inquiry and exploration creates increase comfort among the students. †¢ Greater direction in exploration helps to draw innovative techniques. Improved and broader questioning increases interest in the study of their subjects. †¢ Evidence of student self- evaluation can be immediately ascertained with the teaching in the class. †¢ Improved and extended science writing is the result of action research which helps tom explores their writing skills. †¢ Greater and broader interest in science is possible with the initiative of action research. The research results in increase in student interest, risk taking, questioning ability and comfort with teaching. For e. g.  If the teacher or researcher is worried or not satisfied with the current mind status of students or they are not doing well in class then the first question which arise in the mind of researcher is how to satisfy the need of all the students. So numbers of steps of action research can be adopted by the teacher to outcome result. Especial emphasis is made on listening to students and to better understand their needs. Then consideration should be given to set up community circle to listen to students describing learning experiences in classroom and helps to redesign strategies. During the course of listening researcher can discover information that focus on satisfaction of different user at a time. In other e. g. In an organization where peoples of diverse field are working requires more coordination. With the help of action research current problem â€Å"poor coordination† si ascertained. So after deep research and enquiry the researcher evolve new solution to problem such as creating database for storing and sharing and documents. They main Question which lies with the researcher is how to create healthy and fruitful relationship to increase coordination among them. The next step which is adopted by researcher is what kind of tactic to be employed to get the desired result. After integrating with all the employees at various stages and their suggestion which action is to be taken to increase coordination? Action Research helps in better understanding the situation being studied and also of participants directly involved in the process. This is considered vital in all the sphere as it generate collective action as well as develops participants skills through â€Å"learning by doing† to promote their self reliance. So, it can be said that action research provides opportunity for professional growth of researchers, to improve their practice, to examine findings in their own context. Action Research creates a sense of responsibility, development and improvement on the teacher and classroom. Builds up morale, and encourages collegial interactions.